Question 1

There are various trade-offs that are likely to be associated with conceptualizing innovation policy with Foray’s “broad view”. Among the compromises that such a conceptualization would result in include innovation and there may be communication failure which is likely to affect the success and effectiveness of the entire invention (Foray, 2004). Any innovation policy that seeks to be developed should be based on effective strategies that are set through quality communication. For a strategy to be effective and accomplishable, it must meet a number of qualifications which include making the elites the most diverse so that such a project can be supported by applicable and great ideas that would in turn facilitate its success (Lepore, 2017). Such a model must also involve the general public and should be highly transparent (Branscomb & Keller, 1999). It is only through such concepts that an innovative policy could thrive, and be compromised.

Question 2

Starwarsis one of the initiatives that have ever received much ridicule and great criticism in the American history. The Strategic Defense Initiative, as known by its other name, was a program that was initiated in 1983 by President Reagan. The main goal that fuelled the development of the program was to have a complex anti-ballistic missile system which could have helped to prevent any attacks in form of missiles by other countries to America. America mainly sought to protect herself from any attacks by the Soviet Union (Fini, Rasmussen, Siegel &Wiklund, 2018). The initiative encompassed a large collection of advanced weapons and concepts. A vast collection of information was made from researches that were conducted in national and university laboratories as well as in the general industry. Such research involved top notch scientists in such fields as high-energy physics, computations, as well as other advanced materials (Slayton, 2007). It can be concluded that the project was not concerned with the interests of the average Americans. This made it to receive many criticisms as it was suggested that such a project was a huge threat to destabilizing the MAD-approach. Moreover, it was most likely to re-ignite an offensive arms race that could see the destruction of huge parts of different sections of the West including America (Robinson & Eller, 2010). An application of the same science by the enemies of the US would mean that the US could have less power to fight them back.

Question 3

The shutdown of the OTA is likely to be associated with a variety of implications. The department of the OTA was created to provide members of the congress as well as the committees of the same with both the objective and analysis of complex scientific issues through a process known as technology assessment (Couzin-Frankel, 2013). In the early days, it was a leader in the practice and encouraged the delivery of different public services in a better and inexpensive way (Bimber, 1996). The OTA further enables the Department of Defense to engage in prototype, production projects, as well as research (Grigg, 1978). Consequently, a major implication of shutting down of the OTA would include a greater involvement of the available scientists and researchers (Branscomb & Florida, 1998). In addition, by shutting down the programme, a great source of essential information would get lost and this would lead to poor research and consequently less effective and reliable data (Branscomb & Florida, 1998).

Question 4

Innovation policies that require firms to implement energy efficient-related innovations in their production processes avoid government failure in different ways (Bozeman &Sarewitz, 2005). Innovations by republicans and conservatives focus more on the competitive environment rather than the market failure which would otherwise discourage them from undertaking them (Pielke, 2006). They further ensure that they have adequate scientific knowledge by making use of research to gather essential information as in the case of Bipartisan innovation policy (Fontana, Geuna& Matt, 2006). Creating a precompetitive or generic technology helps to avoid the chances of government failure (National Research Council, 2012). Government failure is one of the factors that makes innovation projects to fail considering that the government is responsible for all the funding and management.

Question 5

Various models have different impacts when it comes to innovation policy. One of the useful models is the technology push model that works by the assumption that technology progresses from scientific as well as research. Development tends to come before pushed technological development through such elements as engineering, applied research, and manufacturing (Nelkin, 1975). The advantage of this model is that all activities within any given phase have to get completed before any delays are created (Godin, 2009). The model also involves less technical uncertainties as compared to various other models, thereby making is a better model as compared to them. A good model for innovation should be rounded in that it should be able to consider the apparent advantages and, at the same time, focus on identifying any possible threats that would hinder the success of such a planned innovation (Uscinski&Klofstad, 2013). Government failure is an example of a threat that could lead to the botch of implementation of a planned innovation strategy.

References

Bimber, B. A. (1996). The politics of expertise in Congress: The rise and fall of the Office of Technology Assessment. SUNY Press.

Bozeman, B., &Sarewitz, D. (2005). Public values and public failure in US science policy. Science and Public Policy, 32(2), 119-136.

Branscomb, L. M., & Florida, R. (1998). Challenges to technology policy in a changing world. CHEMTECH-WASHINGTON DC-, 28, 13-22.

Branscomb, L. M., & Keller, J. H. (Eds.). (1999). Investing in innovation: Creating a research and innovation policy that works. mit press.

Couzin-Frankel, J. (2013). Shaking up science.

Fini, R., Rasmussen, E., Siegel, D., &Wiklund, J. (2018). Rethinking the Commercialization of Public Science: From Entrepreneurial Outcomes to Societal Impacts. Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(1), 4-20.

Fontana, R., Geuna, A., & Matt, M. (2006). Factors affecting university–industry R&D projects: The importance of searching, screening and signalling. Research policy, 35(2), 309-323.

Foray, D. (2004). Economics of knowledge. MIT press.

Grigg, J. (1978). Lloyd George: the people’s champion, 1902-1911 (p. 214). London: Eyre Methuen.

Godin, B. (2009). The making of science, technology and innovation policy: conceptual frameworks as narratives, 1945-2005. Montreal: Centre-Urbanisation Culture Société de l’Institut national de la recherchescientifique.

Lepore, J. (2017). The Autumn of the Atom: How arguments about nuclear weapons shaped the climate-change debate. The New Yorker.

National Research Council. (2012). Using science as evidence in public policy. National Academies Press.

Nelkin, D. (1975). The political impact of technical expertise. Social studies of science, 5(1), 35-54.

Pielke Jr, R. A. (2006). When scientists politicize science. Regulation, 29, 28.

Robinson, S. E., & Eller, W. S. (2010). Participation in policy streams: Testing the separation of problems and solutions in subnational policy systems. Policy Studies Journal, 38(2), 199-216.

Slayton, R. (2007). Discursive choices: Boycotting star wars between science and politics. Social studies of science, 37(1), 27-66.

Uscinski, J. E., &Klofstad, C. A. (2013). Determinants of representatives’ votes on the flake amendment to end national science foundation funding of political science research. PS: Political Science & Politics, 46(3), 557-561.

Do you need high quality Custom Essay Writing Services?