Kuhn, Dieter. “Silk Weaving in Ancient China: From Geometric Figures to Patterns of Pictorial Likeness,” China Science, 12, 1995, pp. 77–114.

In this article, the author discusses the silk weaving process and techniques in Ancient China by examining the geometric figures and patterns. The author also looks into several factors that the Chinese included in the production of silk textile, the patterns,and nature of woven silk, raw materials,as well as other relevant technical factors. Kuhn considers silk as one of the productions that dominated China’s textile technology. Given this view, he explains that this product has distinctive properties that dictated the invention and development of looms along with their technology. Throughout the article, the writer explores several looms that were common during the Han Dynasty. Kuhn relates these looms to the progress of weaving patterns. Mainly, the author tries to determine how the Han patterns emerged. The Chinese people confined the inscriptions into their embroidery and translated them to the model looms (Kuhn77). Indeed, Kuhn provides a comprehensive analysis of the materials Chinese used to manufacture silk.

The majority of Western scholars view that China introduced the drawloom during the medieval period. However, Kuhn’s review of the Han textiles bolsters the perspective of many Chinese historians who assert that the Chinese supported the early types of the drawlooms in the production of fabrics in the later Han Dynasty (Kuhn 77-8). The author identifies the earliest form of Chinese innovations and inventions involved in silk processing, as well as the contributions they made towards the development of the weaving process. What makes the analysis of this article valid is that the author supports it using loom depictions found on stone-relief during the Han era (Kuhn 79). Given the complex nature of looms, China had made considerable strides in the production of silk and textile using the looming technology.

The article provides a comprehensive explanation of the way the earliest looms worked, their structure, composition,and performance. Given that the author refers to several archeological patterned silks, he shows that warring states used such looms. Then again, the writer notes some of the setbacks of the earliest looms such as the long time it took to produce textile. The author proceeds to illustrate how the later development of more technological looms increased the efficiency in the production of silk and weaving. One aspect that he identifies which may have contributed to China’s invention of the loom is because of the women’s involvement in weaving (Kuhn 79-80). The Chinese people were conscious of the qualities of textile and silk; hence, their increased effort in production and distribution.

The author identifies raw materials such as silk and looms design as some of the approaches that one can assess textile patterns, weave patterns as well as looms’ development. Additionally, the author agrees that geometric patterns offer ample proof for China’s ancient looms (Kuhn 81-2). Kuhn uses weaving patterns from the Han era to identify many geometric and symmetric patterns that dominated figured weaves. Given that historians can identify and trace such elements to the warring states, it proves that looms were typical during Ancient China (Kuhn 82). The author argues that although embroidery was vital in increasing the selection of textile patterns significantly, weavers of the Han era undoubtedlyexperimented with looms equipment and weaving techniques to discover new methods of creating colorful and lively patterns on new fabrics (Kuhn 84-5).

Li, Bin, et al. “Study on the Evolution of the Looms in Ancient China.” Advanced Materials         Research, vol. 627, 2012, pp. 449–455., doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.627.449.

The article examines the history of looms and its development in Ancient China. The authors use past research on archeological findings and historical materials to study the way looms developed in China. Based on the studies, the authors discover that the looms’ development process took two parts. Figure-weave and plain weave fabrics were developed on similar looms before the rise of the Han Dynasty. When the Han Dynasty ended, the development process of the looms evolved. Through this examination, the authors offer an account of the textile technology in China. The article notes that the looms’ development process was not linear nor straightforward (Li et al. 450). It also identifies the three development phases of looms in Chinaet al.450)

In their methodology, the researchers sought to use the earliest documented evidence of ancient looms in China. They also examine the operation, process,and structure of looms alongside looking into the archeological findingsof looms in China. The article develops the analysis by following three steps. Firstly, it examines the types of Chinese looms using archeological findings and the earliest documents. Secondly, the authors analyze the development process by studying their shedding mechanism and shapes. Lastly, the article explains the factors that contributed to looms development in China (Li et al. 450).

From their analysis, the authors discover that the oldest form of looms bewas the original back-strap loom. They view that its structure is not complex given that archeological findings date it back to about 4,000 years ago. Based on the authors’examination of archeological weaving tools and fabrics, they believe that historians discovered the loom in the early Neolithic Age. The loom advanced to the two bar loom, which is more complex than the original loom. Using ancient records on weaving instructions, the authors propose that the Chinese may have invented this loom between 470 and 770 BC in China. The Chinese developed the loom extensively, as it comprised of more components. The loom advanced to the treadle looms. After their analysis of archeological discoveries and historical materials about looms, the authors discover that the Chinese invented the treadle loom during the Han Dynasty (Li et al. 450). Such invention demonstrated a considerable improvement in the loom’s structure.

The article offers a valid account of the development process of looms in ancient China. The authors use reputable materials and sources such as archeological findings and past records about the use of looms in China. Based on these sources, they discover that the looms underwent two development phases: the plain looms and draw looms. The writers also examine the similarities and differences between the types of looms and their development stages. They review the different techniques for every kind of loom, helping them to categorize their development period. The more complex the process or procedure, the more developed the loom and vice versa (Li et al. 454). The authors view that ancient loom development reflected the rising of cultural and material needs of the Chinese people. The shifting techniques and mechanism of using the looms over time demonstrate the need of the Chinese people to improve the looms’ productive efficiency while at the same time lowering the weaver’s labor intensity. Many scholars have applied archeological findings toprove the existence of looms technology from the second century BC. Then again, the authors identify an existing disagreement on the way to define China’s invented pattern loom. While many scholars also disagree about the types and forms of loom models, discoveries offer clear explanations to such questions. Indeed, the archaeological discovery of different loom models validates the account of ancient China’s early technology and the rate of transmission of such innovation in the subsequent centuries.

Smith, Michael E. “The Archaeological Study of Neighborhoods and Districts in Ancient Cities.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, vol. 29, no. 2, 2010, pp. 137–154., doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2010.01.001.

In this article, the author examines how cities undergo spatial division into residential zones. With a two-level classification of the zones, the author reviews how archaeologists apply them to assess pre-industrial cities. Smith conducts a comparative review of historical dataon districts and neighborhoods, which allows him to outline the archeological methodologies for analysis and identification. The article offers a compelling review since it draws on illustrative cases from Mesoamerica and Mesopotamia. Additionally, the article is reliable since the author offers a review using an inclusive bottom-up and top-down social forces, which shape and generate districts and neighborhoods within preindustrial cities. Given neighborhoods are evident in village settlements and informal settlements, the article notes that contemporary neighborhoods have attained significant scholarly attention in the past decades (Smith 137-8). However, recently, archaeologists and historians have started to acknowledge the broad incidence and social significance of old social units 137-8).

The author argues that neighborhoods comprise of units with spatial and social implication. Their significance in the urban organization and life emerges from their social composition and roles. The article identifies the primary social characteristics of neighborhoods such as community status, social ties, and varied functional roles in a city. Like scientists and historians, archaeologists aim to identify such social features. However, archaeological research has proven to be unique since it requires to start with the assessment of a spatial organization and then proceed to social interpretations. Because of this development, the author proposes that archaeologists can separate spatial zones, which could characterize residential areas. Consequently, one can apply the analytical method to infer comparative information. The author asserts that the use of an illuminating and complex methodology involves applying spatial zones as the origin to assess neighborhoods (Smith 139-41). He applies a conceptual framework to conduct an archeological assessment of residential zones along with the social features of the past.

The article highlights the importance of residential zones in social and administrative functions. The strength of this article stems from its approach to the analysis. It reviews the archeological methodologies applied in the assessment and identification of socio-spatial units. Mainly, the analysis focuses on preindustrial and ancient cities and draws many examples from such contexts. The author acknowledges that the conceptual literature concerning these cities is lacking for rigorous comparative analysis. Given this reason, he relies on definitions and models derived from the research of contemporary neighborhoods by city planners and sociologists. Then again, there are considerable bodies of research about these and other aspects of contemporary neighborhoods. Often, many social dynamics and contextual variables differ significantly between preindustrial cities and modern western cities.  Notwithstanding, the fundamental facts about the neighborhood’s social implication and existence are similar across several cities, be it modern or ancient (Smith 142-4). The article offers a compelling and intriguing analysis of the role that districts and neighborhoods play in cities. The examination of such cities increases our understanding of diverse urban issues from crime to ethnicity to demography.Due to archeologists’ increased attention towards districts and neighborhoods, the way scholars apply methodologies and interpretations will advance (Smith 146-8). In turn, it will result in an in-depth understanding of the nature of ancient urban processes 146-8).

Suhadolnik, Nataša Vampelj. “Han Mural Tombs: Reflection of Correlative Cosmology through Mural Paintings.” Asian Studies, no. 1, 2011, pp. 19–48., doi:10.4312/as.2011.-15.1.19-48.

In this article, the author applies mural tombs as the primary research material to determine the ancient Chinese cosmologic theories used inthe iconographic design. By conducting an in-depth examination of the mural’ iconographic design, he reveals their decorative function and architectural structure. The analysis also uncovers the way burial objects reflect the whole cosmic image. Using the tomb paintings, the author demonstrates how the correlative cosmology yin-yang wuxing develops and makes clear its concrete image. Accordingly, the author discerns the symbolic code of every iconographic motif. He applies a unique approach to the analysis of the topic. Firstly, he starts by offering an account of the mural tombs. Secondly, the author shifts the focus of his analysis to the depictions identified in Han tombs. Lastly, he discusses the way the Chinese represent celestial bodies’ images and the emblematic split of the comical forces of yang and yin. The examination also uncovers the symbolism and implication of the four seasons, four directions, and the five xings’ symbolic circling (Suhadolnik 19-21).

The author recognizes the role that archaeologists have played in excavating mural tombs to document their past. They discovered mural tombs in Henan province and Luoyang city, validating these areas’ cultural, political, and economic development. These mural tombs also confirm the main political centers, culturally and economically thriving regions, and strategic military points of that period. The author agrees that the data collected from the excavation of mural tombs verify the epicenter of the development of eternal places, as well as their iconographic symbolism. Mainly,it is the case since many mural tombs belonged to generals, rich government officials, and highly ranked members of the society. Given this view, the author argues that mural paintings reflect the era’s artistic tendencies, the social life of the Han Dynasty, and the mentality, ideology, and social status of the dead. Then again, he explains that when classifying the images by their content, opposing and diverse images are grouped into individual frameworks. When taking into account the whole compositional desire, several disconnected motifs uncover the hidden picture  (Suhadolnik 22-23). In effect, one should consider the association between their architectural structure and iconographic classification.

The author’sbroad survey and analysis of the tombs along with their iconographic elements demonstrate that the mural paintings serve more than a simple decorative function. They offer a profound implication and reproduce the whole universe in the manner the population of a specific era perceived it; for instance, immortality, shifting and infinite cosmos and humanity’s pursuits for eternity (Suhadolnik 24). The author shows how the grave murals’ analysis uncovers an intricate correlative cosmology. They offer a representation of the lasting circle of rebirth, death,and birth. The way builders constructed the graves reveals how religious objects reflect the universe. The author proposes the Gaitian theory to explain how murals tombs represent the concept of heaven and earth (Suhadolnik 25)

Using several archaeological materials and methodological approaches, the author provides answers about the way and to what level the mural graves art and architecture unveil the cosmologic perception. The construction design of the tombs and the graves offer a framework of the cosmos. Throughout the analyses, the article exposes the fundamental element of the Han Dynasty painting concept. The representation of the cosmos in the graves shows the cycle of life, harmonious order,  and unhindered sequence of universal principles (Suhadolnik 28-46).

Zhao, Feng, et al. “The Earliest Evidence of Pattern Looms: Han Dynasty Tomb Models from Chengdu, China.” Antiquity, vol. 91, no. 356, 2017, pp. 360–374., doi:10.15184/aqy.2016.267.

The article explains how archeological excavations tombs from the Han Dynasty era have played a significant role in discovering the earliest forms of loom technology and its development. It selects four model looms, related figurines, and artifacts to analyze the evolution of the weaving process in ancient China, offering an in-depth understanding of the jin silk production technology. The authors view that such discovery is essential since it provides not only the earliest but alsodirect proof of the production of pattern-weave textile in China. They argue that the Chinese used the pattern weave method in the production of Jin silk, as it was widely distributed and valuable. Moreover, the machine’s design played a central role in influencing the invention and development of later looms, as well as the spread of such technology across Eurasia and the European continent Zhao et al. 360). The method also represented a major technological development for the 2^nd century BC.

The authors argue that silk discovery was among China’s crucial luxury products. Because of this, the evidence collected about the weaving technology applied in silk textile production in Ancient China is of great significance (Zhao et al. 360). The authors examine the evidence of archeological remains of past pattern looms and related paraphernalia and figurines during the Han Dynasty Era. Mainly, they concentrate on the second century BC since it offers the earliest documented evidence of pattern looms. The focus on such discovery highlights the origins of Chinese technology, which revolutionized the production of silk, both domestically and internationally. By offering a precise description of the pattern loom, including its context, operations, process,and technique, the authors reveal how ancient China embodied the concept of this technology. The loom played a significant part in Chinese textile history, as well as the international history of technology and science. However, the authors argue that until five years ago, humanity’s knowledge about the ancient history of loom was restricted to excavated patterned textiles and textual references (Zhao et al. 361).

The article describes that the loom models offer a pathway to understanding the silk technology of pattern weaving. The artifacts of pattern loom testify the development of weaving technology over time since the second century BC. Such technology was already advancing in China but it could 1,000 years before it reached the West. Accordingly, this shows the advancement of China in loom technology. Apart from describing the discovery of the four model pattern looms, the authors explain how the technology works, its composition, components, and measurements. The fact that the writers can determine such details from artifacts proves the validity of their study (Zhao et al. 361-2). They also argue that the Chinese discovered the looms without textiles. Regardless, the Chinese discovered Jin silk dating to the Warring period and the early Han Dynasty from many areas.  In turn, it allows the authors to argue that such silk applied a similar weave structure since the Chinese used the same technique to develop them (Zhao et al. 366-7).

The authors confirm that the account of looms and weaving technology have been made possible by archeological excavations across the globe. The process has allowed establishing the different forms of looms, techniques, methods,and composition (Zhao et al. 368). It also enables researchers to group the looms to their respective periods. The article offers reliable information about the development of looms and weaving technology. That is because the authors refer to many scholars who have tried to examine and record China’s weaving technology using evidence from archeological and ancient texts.

Works Cited

Kuhn, Dieter. “Silk Weaving in Ancient China: From Geometric Figures to Patterns of Pictorial Likeness,” China Science, 12, 1995, pp. 77–114.

Li, Bin, et al. “Study on the Evolution of the Looms in Ancient China.” Advanced Materials Research, vol. 627, 2012, pp. 449–455., doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.627.449.

Smith, Michael E. “The Archaeological Study of Neighborhoods and Districts in Ancient Cities.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, vol. 29, no. 2, 2010, pp. 137–154., doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2010.01.001.

Suhadolnik, Nataša Vampelj. “Han Mural Tombs: Reflection of Correlative Cosmology through Mural Paintings.” Asian Studies, no. 1, 2011, pp. 19–48., doi:10.4312/as.2011.-15.1.19-48.

Zhao, Feng, et al. “The Earliest Evidence of Pattern Looms: Han Dynasty Tomb Models from Chengdu, China.” Antiquity, vol. 91, no. 356, 2017, pp. 360–374., doi:10.15184/aqy.2016.267.

 
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