2. What are the differences between the empirical and rational approaches to knowledge? Define each term, explain Immanuel Kant’s hybrid approach, and provide an example of a situation to which Kant’s approach can be applied.

To understand the world, empirical approaches emphasize on the experience, observations, and perceptions. Experience is essential in a scientific approach. It is achieved through senses. The rational approach holds that knowledge claims are only justified through rational thinking. It is concerned with innate human capacity to understand ideas and concepts in spite of human sensory experiences. This variety of knowledge is called prior. According to Immanuel Kant, our world is chaotic. Human sensory is what enables man to experience this chaos (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). Rational faculties, on the other hand, organize this chaos in meaningful ways. An instance here is that scientists have repeatedly observed that those individuals with higher education levels tend to have higher political involvement levels. Kant says that though sensory experiences show a close relationship between political and education involvement, rational intuition is the one that allows one to classify this relationship as a cause and effect (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015).

3. Specify the six assumptions of science and provide at least one illustration of each.

First, nature is well ordered. Science argues that the world is orderly and there are recognizable regularities. Structures and relationships continue to coexist despite the rapid changes in the environment.

Second, human beings can have knowledge about nature. This assumption affirms the conviction that man is part of nature similar to other phenomena (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015).

Third, all natural phenomena do have causes. This assumption says that causes are the core scientific resolution to all types of natural phenomena in the world. If science rejects some of the forces that determine how nature works they would end up rejecting fundamentalist spiritualism, magic, and religion (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015).

Fourth, there is nothing that is self-evident. Knowledge in science is not self-evident. Any claim on truth must be objectively demonstrated. Scientists do not rely on subjective beliefs, traditions and cultural norms (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015).

Fifth, knowledge is premised on experience. Science must be empirical if it is to help human beings in understanding the world. It must, therefore, rely on perceptions, observations, and perceptions.

Sixth, the superiority of knowledge exceeds ignorance. The assumption implies that human beings can have knowledge of themselves. One must pursue knowledge for the sake of improving his condition (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015).

4. What are the aims of science as a knowledge-producing System?

All social sciences have a major goal that includes producing a body of knowledge that is verifiable (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). This knowledge would enable human beings in predicting, explaining and understanding the empirical phenomena that is fascinating.

5. Discuss prediction and specify why it is the reverse of the process of explanation.

Prediction encompasses elements of scientific knowledge (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). Being able to make a sound prediction is considered as a fundamental trait of science. A scientist already has knowledge of antecedent conditions and on this ground seeks to get an understanding of the future phenomena.

6. Compare and contrast the Verstehen tradition with the predictive understanding position favored by logical empiricists. Give examples of each point of view.

Many social scientist contrary to the Verstehen tradition believe that attaining objective knowledge is possible when we study the social world. Logical empiricists argue that social and natural sciences can be evaluated using same methods (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). Though they argue that empathic understanding is important in making inquiries and discoveries in sciences, they contend that these inquiries or discoveries must be validated through empirical observations before integrating into the larger scientific body of knowledge.

7. What conditions must exist for knowledge in general and scientific methodology, in particular, to be intersubjective? Provide at least one example.

Scientific methodology gives a set of criteria that are accepted for the determination of empirical objectivity-truth and selection of the appropriate techniques and methods of validation of conclusion and evidence. Inter-subjectivity is the sharing of factual information and observations towards reaching an agreement (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). It is indispensable since logical reasoning by itself cannot guarantee objectivity. So that inter-subjectivity to persist, knowledge should be communicable and must be agreed mutually by the scientific community members. If a scientist makes a study, then another scientist must have a methodology toolkit at disposal to compare the two findings and to replicate it

8. Discuss what the authors of the textbook mean by the term The Scientific Revolution.

Kuhn sees revolutionary science as a replacement of one paradigm by another one. This change takes place slowly since it will be accepted gradually and with conflict by the scientific society (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015).

9. Compare and contrast Kuhn’s descriptive view of science with Popper’s prescriptive theory.

According to Popper, scientific society must be an open society (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). Moreover, no dominant change is ever holy. He argues that science must not be in a permanent revolution state and criticism lies at the heart of the scientific world.

10. Specify each of the seven stages of the research process and give an example of each stage.

Problem definition- Research process starts with a problem and ends with a generalization. Various problems call for different techniques, and each technique has advantages and limitations.

Hypothesis construction- Construction of hypothesis on research problem requires both to be empirical and logical (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). If the generalizations are rejected, scientists would formulate new ones and test them too.

Research design- This is the strategy that would guide the researcher in the whole research process.

Measurement- Researchers assign symbols systematically. These symbols are usually numbers and empirical to the observation

Data collection- Researchers at this stage make and record the empirical observations.

Analyses of Data- During data processing, those observations researchers have made in the collection of data stage are converted into conceptual categories system (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). These categories get translated into schemes of coding that will lend themselves to quantitative analysis.

Generalization- It can be rejected even when it is true and if the validation procedures and the process of verification are deficient (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015). Ending one process serves as a beginning of the other.

Reference

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2015). Research methods in the social sciences (8^th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers, a Macmillan Education Company.

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