Hemovich, V., Lac, A., & Crano, W. D. (2011). Understanding early-onset drug and alcohol outcomes among youth: The role of family structure, social factors, and interpersonal perceptions of use. Psychology, health & medicine, 16(3), 249-267.

The research conducted by Hemovich, Lac and Crano (2011) delineate on the possibilities of drug use and addiction among youths with normality families. Normality families are families that have both parents. Based on the study, the researchers found out that children in families with both parents are less likely to use drug or abuse drugs compared to other non-normal families (Hemovich, Lac & Crano, 2011, p.250). Through a qualitative research design, the researchers set out to interview families of varied familial background with the need to collect sensitive information regarding drug abuse. Using the random sampling method through the National Survey of Parents and Youth (NSPY), the researchers used a computer-based generated data analytical, statistical analysis formula. As such, the dependent variable ranges from parental to social variables (Hemovich, Lac & Crano, 2011, p.253). For example, in the parental variable, measures of demographic characteristics such as age and gender as well as familial structure were measured.

Additionally, factors on parental monitoring and parental warmth were measured. As for social constructs, issues of involvement in social activities among youths including clubbing were considered as well as positive social engagement such as club scouts and youth religious groups were measured (Hemovich, Lac & Crano, 2011, p.255). Variables of intrapersonal and substance abuse were also considered. In their discovery, that substance abuse is a common feature among youths regardless of being raised in a family with stable features of two parents. Nonetheless, the abuse factor alters when parents are either missing or is only one(Hemovich, Lac & Crano, 2011, p.257).

Kelly, K. J., & Hunn, L. C. (2002). Parent-child communication, perceived sanctions against drug use, and youth drug involvement. Adolescence, 37(148), 775-788.

It is often determined that parents are crucial to their child’s understanding of the world including issues about drug use and abuse. According to the study done by Kelly and Hunn (2002, p. 775), the researchers determined that parents are the most involved individuals in their children’s lives when it comes to conversations on drug abuse and children also considered that their parents are the best source when it comes to knowledge on drugs. Contradictorily, the research also indicated that the youth would instead engage a larger group of other teenagers on the use of narcotics considering that sanctions placed by families on drug-abuse increase the chance of drug use. The research’s credibility was based on the sampling number of youths which was approximately 83, 000 individuals who attended grades 7 through grades 12 in more than 36 distinct communities in the United States of America (Kelly & Hunn, 2002, p. 778). However, the sampling distribution was a bit biased from a personal opinion since the dispersed population. For example, a non-Hispanic community composed 86% of the population while the other communities comprised of 14%. Nonetheless, the variables measured included substance abuse, family sanctions and communication about drugs (Kelly & Hunn, 2002, p. 778). The researchers determined that parent-child communication is often pivotal to the strong protective factor concerning youth involvement with substance use and abuse (Kelly & Hunn, 2002, p. 783). However, the study discovered that this is not essential to the communication for youths to stop using drugs including alcohol, heroin and other hard drugs. The researchers Kelly and Hunn, (2002, p. 784) recommend that parents ought to be consistent in their children’s lives especially when it comes to communication with drug use and abuse.

King, K. A., Vidourek, R. A., & Merianos, A. L. (2013). Sex and grade level differences in lifetime nonmedical prescription drug use among youth. The journal of primary prevention, 34(4), 237-249.

The article by King, Vidourek and Merianos (2013, p. 237) explores the issue about youth use of substances that are considered to be non-medical prescription drugs. The intention is to determine whether communities in America based on grades 7 through grade 12 used non-medical prescription drugs (NMPD). The concern from the researchers arises from the fact that national surveys in America have indicated that children especially youth are engaging in substance abuse with specificity to non-medical prescription drugs. Drugs such as psychotherapeutic drugs including pain relievers, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives are common among 7 million youths in America. From this information, the researchers King, Vidourek and Merianos (2013, p. 237) main aim is to discover the prevalence among youths in school. The methodology involved the random sampling of the student based on parental consent in the Greater Cincinnati area. Through a questionnaire, the children were required to fill out information on a 5-point scale of pro-social behaviors which were the non-independent variables. The ethical regard for confidentiality of information was provided to each school administrator as well as parents to protect the identity of the children. A sample size of 55, 000 individuals were used were 77.4% indicated the use of NMPD. Half of the sample were males (49.4%) while the others were females (King, Vidourek & Merianos, 2013, p. 240). Effects of substance abuse based on peer pressure such as sex, race, grade level, and job status were discovered to play a critical role in the NMPD use. However, the NMPD use statistically grew larger in high school compared to junior school indicating that NMPD use is worse in high school goers than the latter.

Vidourek, R. A., & King, K. A. (2013). Parent, teacher, and school factors associated with over-the-counter drug use among multiracial youth. American journal of health education, 44(6), 306-315.

Apart from NMPD and other hard drug abuse, the growing concern on the use of over-the-counter drugs among youths in America is imminent. Based on the study conducted by Vidourek and King (2013, p. 306), the situation among 7^th to 12^th-grade students is unknown from a multiracial perspective. The pertaining issue is based on the effects of the use of non-medically prescribed over-the-counter drugs among youths. Based on studies done before, the researchers determine that age-group results are more significant among children than in adults. Health issues such as cardiovascular disorders, paranoia, and psychosis are among the factors (Vidourek & King, 2013, p. 310). The rates of substance abuse among youths are at a record all-time-high in the 21^st century in the country, but, according to Vidourek and King (2013, p. 306), the statistics may be wrong when the race is considered. Through qualitative data analysis of youths in grades 7 through 12, the researchers Vidourek and King (2013, p. 307) investigated the impact of drug abuse among youths in racial profiling. Variables of prosocial activities such as risky behaviors, parental factors, drug use among friends and teacher/school factors were measured. The study determined that nearly 77% of the school population engaged in the consumption of OTC drugs. The shocking discovery was that 21% of 7^th graders consumed OTC while the least was among 12^th graders. Moreover, the study elucidates that OTC drug use is higher on am multiracial level compared to the national statistics on a leveled statistical outlook (Vidourek and King (2013, p. 310). As such, the researchers summarised that the significant difference based on gender was noted where males were more likely to use OTC compared to females which contradicted national statistical analyzed data. Also, the researchers determined that OTC use led to risky behavior in males compared to females.

Andersen, C. J. J. S. L. (2016). Sensitive periods of substance abuse: Early risk for them. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 1946-56.

The purpose of the study by Andersen (2016, p. 1946) is to determine whether early substance abuse dramatically increased with the risk of substance abuse disorder. The factors are derived from the statistical outlook that drug trials among youths provide a small transition to substance abuse disorder in adulthood — factors of high reactivity reward, habit, and stress among the risks of the system. Therefore, Andersen (2016, p. 1946) set out to discover if the theory is correct. The premise for the study revolves around the assumption that early initiation of substance abuse increases the risk of substance dependence among youth and later on in life. As such, the study configured the sample population of persons aged 18 years and above. The review by Andersen (2016, p. 1947) revolves around factors of animal experiments and how it is determined that substance abuse initiation leads onto behaviors among animals.

As a consequence, the animals commence the addiction phase which leads on to substance abuse disorder. However, from a human perspective, Andersen (2016, p. 1949) exploits that substance abuse is worse of in females than it is in males but, there are contradictory studies to this effect. Therefore, Andersen (2016, p. 1948) predisposes substance dependence theories including executive dysfunction, incentive salience and habit formation as the leading cause of substance abuse disorder. Andersen (20126, p 1948) determines that the prevalence is common among youths and adults but, there is limited theoretical knowledge on the emotional issues regarding substance abuse disorder. Hence, Andersen (2016, p. 1948) proposes that it is best for parents and society to understand the emotional aspect to create a solution to the growing problem.

References

Hemovich, V., Lac, A., & Crano, W. D. (2011). Understanding early-onset drug and alcohol outcomes among youth: The role of family structure, social factors, and interpersonal perceptions of use. Psychology, health & medicine, 16(3), 249-267.

Kelly, K. J., & Hunn, L. C. (2002). Parent-child communication, perceived sanctions against drug use, and youth drug involvement. Adolescence, 37(148), 775-788.

King, K. A., Vidourek, R. A., & Merianos, A. L. (2013). Sex and grade level differences in lifetime nonmedical prescription drug use among youth. The journal of primary prevention, 34(4), 237-249.

Vidourek, R. A., & King, K. A. (2013). Parent, teacher, and school factors associated with over-the-counter drug use among multiracial youth. American journal of health education, 44(6), 306-315.

Andersen, C. J. J. S. L. (2016). Sensitive periods of substance abuse: Early risk for them. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 1946-56.