Brown vs. Board of Education

Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka is considered as historic moments for the black Americans. This case was argued on May 17, 1954, by NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall where the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that ‘’separate but equal doctrine’’ was unconstitutional. It is this ruling that classified this doctrine as against the fourteenth amendment that protected rights of every citizen[1]. Before this ruling, black Americans had suffered a lot in the hands of the whites just because of the skin color.   This segregation was also eminent in the education sector, and such events brought about civil rights movements. The high court ruled that separate educational facilities for the blacks were unequal and unconstitutional. The intention of Brown was to stop further segregation in the education sector and advocated for a situation whereby white and black kids would not be forced to learn in separate schools.

Before the landmark ruling, African-Americans were treated as second-class citizens just because of their skin color. The blacks were treated as slaves where they would work on plantations just to have something for their stomachs. They would be humiliated through brutal killings, rape and other forms of violence. The discrimination had gone to an extent that there were jobs for the whites and those reserved for the blacks[2]. Transport and other hospitality places were also reserved for the blacks and special for the whites.  Racial inequality was real, and something had to be done to solve this problem. As a result, civil rights movements started with a sole objective of ensuring that racial inequality came to an end. Although it was not easy, the black Americans engaged in boycotts and continuous protests to ensure that their plight would be considered. This period is referred to as the second reconstruction era that addressed the longstanding economic and social inequities that black Americans suffered from.

This historic landmark event brought change in the economic, social and political structure of America. Brown’s case brought about a permanent social change not only in the education sector but also in other social aspects.  After this ruling, almost all American public schools, though reluctantly, became formally integrated and there were no schools for the blacks and school for the whites. NAACP, ACLU, women’s liberation movements among other activists also pushed for the Affirmative Action after they were angered by the slow pace that these schools embraced the ruling. More jobs and freedom for the blacks were later realized as continued protests, especially from Martin Luther. The blacks were also able to focus on the voting rights among other essential rights as spelled out in the Fourteenth Amendment.

The major contribution resulting from persistence civil rights movements is the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.  The Act provided milestone achievement for the blacks where they got voting rights, the right to full citizenship, education, equal employment opportunities and declaring it illegal having segregated public places[3]. Although the fight against racial discrimination in American is not yet won, it is evident that the Brown’s case has brought about tremendous changes in the political, social and economic life of the blacks[4].

The Military Industrial Complex

President Dwight D. Eisenhower made the most memorable farewell speech that lasted only for ten minutes. The speech was made in 1961 after heroic participation in the World War II. Contrary to the expectations of the majority of the Americans, Dwight Eisenhower warned the Americans of the dangers of military industrial complex[5]. This is an essential aspect that is concerned with the relationship between a nation’s armed forces and the industries that support them. Eisenhower was wary of the military spending that would have adverse effects on the overall national budget[6]. The president is warning that Americans are likely to suffer more from the military industrial complex resulting from the many private manufacturers and political brokers involved in the US politics[7]. United States spending on war is likely to be much higher compared to other countries. Being the super powers, America is a victim of military industrial complex, and the president was aware of the repercussions of such instances.  Besides the economic issues arising from the military complex, it is also possible to have increased cases of economic crimes and corruption[8]. America was greatly involved in the war to prove their superiority with little or no concern about the economic status of the country.

Eisenhower felt that increased participation of the Americans in war would have dire consequences for the welfare of the country. In his speech, the president warns the Americans this military industry complex would lead to a rise in misplaced powers, endangering American liberties and democratic policies. He argued that Americans pre-preparedness to war was taking Americans away from peace to a country of dreadful fear and hate[9]. The president proposed the use of other means to conflict resolution rather than engaging in wars. He is concerned that although negotiation is the best way to conflict resolution but is not always a realistic approach especially to super powers. Military industry complex would lead to a situation of conflicts and war. America would always spend a substantial amount of its budget to prove to the world its gigantic power.

Internet industrial complex is also another possibility in the 21st century. Just like other arms manufacturers in the United States are inseparable with the government, internet companies are also likely to partner with the government forming an industrial complex. Companies such as Facebook and Amazon will likely to have a major impact on the military spending. Internet companies have gradually entered into the American politics with the attempt to protect their interests from political interference[10]. As a result, most of these internet companies are working with the government and this influence will have impacts in the American war front. Most of these internet companies such as Google and Facebook are working closely with NSA and this there are high chances that there will be increased internet military complex as time goes by. With the increased cases of terrorism in the modern days, the cases of the military industrial complex are likely to be on the rise as some of these companies are also part of these terrorist groups[11].  In essence, Eisenhower wanted the Americans to understand that war is not best for the welfare of the citizens but it is an opportunity for others to reap big from incidents of war. It would, therefore, make no sense to spend resources that would be used by future generation destroying their political and spiritual heritage.

1963 March on Washington

August 28, 1963, is a great day in the history of America. This was the day when more than 200,000 Americans gathered in the capital city, Washington D.C., for a rally known as March on Washington. The arch was intended to create jobs and freedom and was organized by different civil rights and religious groups that wanted to send a message on the hardships and challenges that faced black Americans during that time[12]. The march that turned to be the beginning of a long journey of redemption was culminated by a speech from Martin Luther King.  It is the genesis of the famous speech from King “I Have a Dream” and was the road to racial justice and equality.

The event was held twice in the history of America and was lead by Rev. King and other activists who wanted to pass the message of social, political and economic equality for all Americans regardless of the color of their skins. The march that involved the whites, black and the brown intended to pressurize American president and the Congress to act swiftly and enable the poor to get jobs, adequate health services and decent homes[13]. The march intended to bring a multiracial army for the poor that would spearhead a campaign that would bring about economic fairness. King had a strong army for the poor Americans with a sole objective of campaigning for inclusivity in jobs and other opportunities[14]. Despite his assassination in 1968, his followers launched a similar march and demonstrated to different federal agencies in demand of justice and inclusivity.

One of the major significance of the march is involvement of all Americans across the different races. King was more concerned with the class having realized that most whites were also poor just like the blacks. He was aware of the existing conflicts between the rich and the poor and capitalized on this shortcoming to realize the objective of justice to all Americans. Just like the March lead by Rev[15]. King, the other March was also culminated by a written by James Farmer, who was imprisoned in Louisiana. The speech was read by Floyd McKissick, who confirmed that the fight for freedom and economic equality was unstoppable. Just like Martin Luther, he was also convinced that there would come a time when social and economic justice would be realized in America.

The March on Washington 1963 was followed by several years of disillusion and racial strife just like the other March. It is however prudent noting that the two marches represented a grim of hope and belief that there would be a time when blacks and the whites would work together for racial equality. In essence, the March is a historic event in the American history and to some extent it resulted in some success in the pursuit of equality between the races.

In 1964 civil rights act

Civil rights movements brought about the second reconstruction era where black Americans strived to ensure that they are equal to their white counterparts. After assassinations of Martin Luther and Malcolm X, there were declined protests in the 1960s. However, the struggle for freedom from the black Americans still continued and left a mark on the American society[16]. During this period, several forms of racial discrimination had been adequately addressed especially segregation of public places and equal access to education and employment opportunities. It is, however, prudent noting that there were still some elements of racial segregation and repression among the blacks[17]. The second reconstruction is remembered for the legislation of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which is said to be the law in the modern America. The Act was passed by the Congress in July 1964 just after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.

The legislation of the Act was a real revolution in America where Jim Crow laws became a thing of the past. The whites would now dine together with the blacks in public restaurants and travel in the same transport vessel a thing that would not happen under Jim Crow laws.  The enactment of this act brought to end discrimination in public places and facilities[18]. Civil Rights Act also banned any form of discrimination based on race, gender, origin or religion. In essence, the enactment of this legislation was a major achievement by black Americans all over America as they had a rightful share of the government.

Besides the major impacts on the lives of black Americans, the Act also had a significant impact on lives of American women, Latinos, religious minorities as well as the native whites. In essence, the civil rights act of 1964 was the source of anti-discrimination part of American lives. Americans with Disability Act and the pregnancy discrimination Act are as a result of the anti-discrimination measures passed by the congress after the civil right Act of 1964. Women also benefited in getting their jobs back in cases where they had been discriminated on gender or because of pregnancy. It is the introduction of this Act that “male only” job notices became illegal for the first time. Also, the number of women serving as attorneys and federal judges has also increased substantially as a result of this Act. In fact, women make more than a third of all lawyers in America and three of the nine judges of the Supreme Court are women[19]. It is also prudent noting that the introduction of this Act strengthened the equal employment opportunity commission that gave women a platform to compete with males.

1965 voting rights act

Despite the major achievements of the civil right act of 1964, the black men did not get the right to vote. Although they were granted the right to vote by the 15th Amendment of 1870, there were still major obstacles that prevented them from participating in such issues of national importance. Such hindrances were more prevalent in the south and more so to the women. Literacy tests, property ownership, and poll taxes were some of the hindrances that prevented most blacks from participating in an election[20]. However, the 24th Amendment to the American Constitution was ratified to remove poll taxes as a condition for voting in federal elections. It is, however, prudent noting that this was not enough as it only standardized the voting rules in all parts of America.

The legislation of the voting rights act of 1965 that the blacks enjoyed full voting rights as American citizens. The legislation of this Act was a result of increased civil rights protests that forced President Johnson to succumb to this pressure. Prior to the enactment of this Act, the African American were not allowed to participate in an election procedure[21]. The journey to achieving the intention of the Act was a long one and faced several obstacles. The blacks especially from the south were restricted not to vote as they were feared to be a threat to the political status quo[22]. However, in other parts, the blacks were proactive in the voting exercise and by the end of 1966, more that 50% of black Americans in the southern states were already registered voters.

The impact of the Act was evident by end of 1968 when the hard line of Mississippi already had over 59% of black Americans registered as voters.  It is also prudent noting that by this time, some of African Americans had already been elected to public offices. In fact, by 1969, the number of black legislators had risen from two to 160[23]. There have been further enactments on this act in 1970, 1975 and 1982 which are aimed at improving equal voting rights among the Americans. The major impact of the Act is evidenced by the latest election of President Barack Obama who is serving for the second term as the first black American president.

The passing of the voting right Act was intended to remove barriers and restrictions that hindered the minority from participating in elections. It intended to ensure that all states and local governments do not pass laws or policies that deny American citizens their democratic right to vote due to the skin color[24]. America wanted to be an example of a leading democracy where all citizens would have the right to elect their leaders in free and fair elections.  It is nevertheless prudent noting that here is still much to be done as still laws are being passed that hinder thriving of the voting rights Act. However, the achievements made by this Act have of late been dealt a huge blow. On 25th June 2013, the United States Supreme Court reviewed and overturned a key provision of the Voting rights Act and removed a critical tool to combat racial discrimination in voting. The ruling on the case Shelby County v. Holder is a major blow to the tremendous achievements resulting from the Voting Rights Act as it allowed states to begin changing their voting laws without procedural protection in place[25]. However, it is prudent noting that the senate and the congress are striving to strengthen the core voting rights Act.

 

Bibliography

Campbell, G. J. ‘Southern Civil Religions: Imagining The Good Society In The Post-Reconstruction Era’. Journal of American History 99, no. 3 (2012): 940-941.

Cohen, Andrew. ‘After 50 Years, The Voting Rights Act’s Biggest Threat: The Supreme Court’. The Atlantic. Last modified 2013. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/02/after-50-years-the-voting-rights-acts-biggest-threat-the-supreme-court/273257/ .

Dierenfield, Bruce J. ˜Theœ Civil Rights Movement. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013.

Encyclopedia Britannica,. ‘Military-Industrial Complex’. Last modified 2015. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.britannica.com/topic/military-industrial-complex.

Gerteis, Joseph. ‘:Fenians, Freedmen, And Southern Whites: Race And Nationality In The Era Of Reconstruction. (Conflicting Worlds.)’. AM HIST REV 113, no. 4 (2008): 1167-1168.

Hohle, Randolph. Black Citizenship And Authenticity In The Civil Rights Movement. New York: Routledge, 2013.

Krueger, Dave. ‘The Internet Industrial Complex | Reality Thinking’. Realitythinking.Org. Last modified 2013. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.realitythinking.org/2013/06/20/the-internet-industrial-complex/.

Romano, Renee Christine, and Leigh Raiford. The Civil Rights Movement In American Memory. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2006.

 

[1] Campbell, G. J. ‘Southern Civil Religions: Imagining The Good Society In The Post-Reconstruction Era’. Journal of American History 99, no. 3 (2012): 940-941.

[2] Gerteis, Joseph. ‘:Fenians, Freedmen, And Southern Whites: Race And Nationality In The Era Of Reconstruction. (Conflicting Worlds.)’. AM HIST REV 113, no. 4 (2008): 1167-1168.

[3] Campbell, G. J. ‘Southern Civil Religions: Imagining The Good Society In The Post-Reconstruction Era’. Journal of American History 99, no. 3 (2012): 940-941.

[4] Hohle, Randolph. Black Citizenship And Authenticity In The Civil Rights Movement. New York: Routledge, 2013.

[5] Campbell, G. J. ‘Southern Civil Religions: Imagining The Good Society In The Post-Reconstruction Era’. Journal of American History 99, no. 3 (2012): 940-941.

[6] Encyclopedia Britannica,. ‘Military-Industrial Complex’. Last modified 2015. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.britannica.com/topic/military-industrial-complex.

[7] Dierenfield, Bruce J. ˜Theœ Civil Rights Movement. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013.

[8] Romano, Renee Christine, and Leigh Raiford. The Civil Rights Movement In American Memory. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2006.

[9] Encyclopedia Britannica,. ‘Military-Industrial Complex’. Last modified 2015. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.britannica.com/topic/military-industrial-complex.

[10] Encyclopedia Britannica,. ‘Military-Industrial Complex’. Last modified 2015. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.britannica.com/topic/military-industrial-complex.

[11] Krueger, Dave. ‘The Internet Industrial Complex | Reality Thinking’. Realitythinking.Org. Last modified 2013. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.realitythinking.org/2013/06/20/the-internet-industrial-complex/.

[12] Dierenfield, Bruce J. ˜Theœ Civil Rights Movement. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013

[13] Gerteis, Joseph. ‘:Fenians, Freedmen, And Southern Whites: Race And Nationality In The Era Of Reconstruction. (Conflicting Worlds.)’. AM HIST REV 113, no. 4 (2008): 1167-1168.

[14] Campbell, G. J. ‘Southern Civil Religions: Imagining The Good Society In The Post-Reconstruction Era’. Journal of American History 99, no. 3 (2012): 940-941.

[15] Dierenfield, Bruce J. ˜Theœ Civil Rights Movement. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013.

[16] Campbell, G. J. ‘Southern Civil Religions: Imagining The Good Society In The Post-Reconstruction Era’. Journal of American History 99, no. 3 (2012): 940-941.

[17] Dierenfield, Bruce J. ˜Theœ Civil Rights Movement. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013.

[18] Romano, Renee Christine, and Leigh Raiford. The Civil Rights Movement In American Memory. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2006.

[19] Hohle, Randolph. Black Citizenship And Authenticity In The Civil Rights Movement. New York: Routledge, 2013.

[20] Cohen, Andrew. ‘After 50 Years, The Voting Rights Act’s Biggest Threat: The Supreme Court’. The Atlantic. Last modified 2013. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/02/after-50-years-the-voting-rights-acts-biggest-threat-the-supreme-court/273257/ .

[21] Gerteis, Joseph. ‘:Fenians, Freedmen, And Southern Whites: Race And Nationality In The Era Of Reconstruction. (Conflicting Worlds.)’. AM HIST REV 113, no. 4 (2008): 1167-1168.

[22] Romano, Renee Christine, and Leigh Raiford. The Civil Rights Movement In American Memory. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2006.

[23] Cohen, Andrew. ‘After 50 Years, The Voting Rights Act’s Biggest Threat: The Supreme Court’. The Atlantic. Last modified 2013. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/02/after-50-years-the-voting-rights-acts-biggest-threat-the-supreme-court/273257/ .

[24] Dierenfield, Bruce J. ˜Theœ Civil Rights Movement. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013.

[25] Cohen, Andrew. ‘After 50 Years, The Voting Rights Act’s Biggest Threat: The Supreme Court’. The Atlantic. Last modified 2013. Accessed November 17, 2015. http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/02/after-50-years-the-voting-rights-acts-biggest-threat-the-supreme-court/273257/ .

 
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