Question 1

In the lecture on entertainment media and science, we talked about some of the potential impacts (positive and negative) of pop culture depictions of different scientific issues. Choose a popular depiction of scientific issues and discuss its significance to public understandings of science.

The government funds the research process, after all. It is therefore difficult for the public not to think of the findings as free from government interference. Additionally, the rigours which go into research seem to favour the interests of the sponsors. With limited funding, scientists cannot conduct major research undertakings (Suhay, 2017). As such, the depiction of science in the society its findings is hardly independent of the influence of the financiers. The impact of such representations on the nation can only be negative. Sadly, the public is reluctant to believe that the propositions based on scientific research due to suspicion of external influences.

The norms and ethics of the research process require scientists always to make their findings. Scientific endeavours are still under close observation from independent entities. The significant influence major science projects have on the formulation of government policy, however, weighs heavily on the integrity of the findings (Suhay, 2017). The U.S. government plays a vital role in setting the scientific agenda in the country. The reason is that science justifies the rationale behind undertaking a particular direction in public policy. Further, it can contract or encourage further research by varying the budgetary allocation to the sector. Suhay (2017) reckons that this power the United States government has on its ability to influence scientific research is rarely exercised. Nonetheless, the perception that science is political still stands given the strong power its findings have on policymaking.

Government policy is an avenue through which various actors influence scientific knowledge directly or indirectly. The President and Congress have considerable influence on the findings of government-sponsored research. The President exercises direct authority through direct executive orders and personal appointees (Suhay, 2017). Congress, on the other hand, controls the budget allocated to scientific projects, exercises oversight, and enacts legislation. The politicians listen to their science advisers before making their own decisions. However, they tend to latch on the scientific evidence which is consistent with their political aspirations. President Nixon for example, famously disbanded the President’s Science Advisory Committee when its members refused to ratify his war-related resolutions (Suhay, 2017). Members from both parties in Congress also compete to get scientists who favour their political opinions in hearings. The vested interests from the political class to influence the scientific research process reinforces the belief by the public that science is hardly independent in conducting its findings.

The scientists themselves also have political commitments of their own which could influence the research. Empirical findings could provide insight towards the motivations of the scientists, although the results are not always authoritative. Scientists are ethically required to refrain from being influenced by personal opinion while designing the research process (Suhay, 2017). Nevertheless, controversies regarding the validity of scientific findings continue to dominate the world stage. In several instances, political actors behind these scientific decisions become apparent. Additionally, some scientists knowingly misleading government agencies to achieve specific personal goals. It has happened in the United States in the past, although such numbers are likely to be comparatively small in relative percentage (Suhay, 2017). Overall, the impact of the depiction of scientific programs being subject to political pressures always translates to a negative public attitude.

Question 2
What are the benefits of citizen science, for researchers and the public? Weigh this against some of the concerns (such as the validity of data). How has the internet impacted citizen science?

Collaborations between scientists and volunteers have the potential to widen the scope of the scientific data collected. Volunteers who participate in scientific studies as field assistants are referred to as citizen scientists (Cohn, 2008). Citizen scientists only collect the data used in deriving scientific findings. The partnership with the scientists divides responsibilities in the research process. Scientists analyse the data collected and write scientific papers (Cohn, 2008). Concerns on the reliability of data collected through the use of untrained personnel are valid. The researchers, however, employ various measures to ensure the reliability of data collected. Also, increased use of the internet allows the sharing of data among different groups of researchers. The cooperation between scientists and the members of the public enhances the quality of the research process while minimising incidences of unreliable data.

Cooperation between the members of the public and reduces the financial implications of the process. Citizens help scientists gather vital data but are not paid for their assistance. The majority of the assistants deployed on the field are amateurs. Researches depend on the volunteers’ passion for the topic under investigation for its success (Cohn, 2008). Typically, those who decide to volunteer want to do something to help a specific environmental problem such as near-extinction of plant or animal species (Cohn, 2008). Scientific research provides them with the necessary tools to work.  Collaboration with scientists allows citizens to work on their passion while also collecting valuable data in the research process.

Deploying volunteers to gather data allows scientists to collect data on an extensive geographical scale. Compared to the traditional processes of scientific research, volunteers cover wider areas (Cohn, 2008). Also, the use of volunteers increases the length of the research process. The long period of research provides enough time for scientists to spot possible anomalies. Additionally, the vast geographical areas offer researchers the chance to compare data. The researchers have developed a way of minimising errors and mistakes from the untrained citizen scientists (Cohn, 2008). One of the techniques is to pair a volunteer with a member of staff for data comparison (Cohn, 2008). The second technique involves training the members of the public on how to handle equipment used in data collection. Measures to reduce errors tend to enhance the reliability of data used in scientific research.

Professional researchers know they have to solicit for help from volunteers. The success of the process depends on the ability of those in charge to find a balance between quality and costs. The reality is the majority of scientific research projects would be unsustainable without the input of the citizen scientists (Cohn, 2008). Therefore, researchers have to find ways of mitigating the incidence of unreliable data. One of the techniques of accommodating the untrained but passionate volunteers often involves scheduling special training regimes (Cohn, 2008). The volunteers are taught the basics of handling equipment and data collection. The research concept is better if it attracts a significant number of volunteers (Cohn, 2008). Nonetheless, using citizen scientists enhances the quality of data collection and interpretation.

The role of the internet and technology in the research process is vital in the current world. Additionally, access to the internet has steadily increased over the years. As such, information is readily available online. The development of technology has therefore allowed the formation of collaborative, socially-based knowledge systems. A significant number of the science project today require participants to take measurements or pictures using their mobile phones. Also, modern science design processes utilise various applications to help data collectors share their findings. Adoption of the internet and advanced technology in scientific research has revolutionised the nature of the interaction between scientists and volunteers.
Question 4Choose either a specific health promotion (e.g., an anti-smoking ad) or a drug advertisement. Describe the content and purpose – what is it promoting or selling? Do you think it’s useful? Why or why not? How does this connect to more broad issues around public understandings of science that we’ve already discussed?

The chosen advertisement is titled “Ecstasy, Know the Score” by the National Drugs Helpline of 1998. The promotion was designed to discourage the use of ecstasy among the youth in the United Kingdom. “Ecstasy, Know the Score” features edited separate photographs of a young man and a young lady. The anti-drug use poster is an example of a fear-based health promotional material. The photos are shot at different locations but contain the same messages on the adverse effects of using the drug on both boys and girls. One photo depicts a boy possibly under the influence of the drug inside what looks like a night club. Graphical edits on the photo cover half of the boy’s face with a mask. The torso also contains graphics. Information regarding the harmful effects of the drug on a person’s body is indicated using arrows. The promotion is intent on discouraging the use of the drug among young men by highlighting its adverse effects.

The second photo depicts a young woman in what looks like a washroom. The method of editing the images appears the same as the first. The warning messages conveyed on this photo appear in the same fashion as the first but are slightly customised. The advertisers look to capitalise on fear through their posters to inspire a change in society. A water bottle visible from the representation emphasises the importance of staying hydrated if a person is under the influence of ecstasy. Also, information indicated using arrows warn young girls that the drug induces heavier periods and predisposes them to cystitis. The other news is the same as in the first picture. The National Drugs Helpline warns the youth that ecstasy could make them feel good on the short-term, but causes brain damage, depression and anxiety in the long run. The warning messages are carefully worded to relate with the youth and explain the demerits of the drug in a clear message.

I think the content in the pictures is sufficient for achieving the intended purpose. The graphics on both photos are frightening. The graphical content reinforces the adverse effects the drugs have on the youth, including the possibility of brain damage. Further, the promotions inform the youth that the drug could cause potential liver damage. Long-term damages are possibly legitimate concerns especially if ecstasy a person uses in combination with alcohol or other drugs. The posters conclude by demeaning people who take the pill, likening them to a guinea pig. The adverse effects and the scary graphics appear well-balanced and desist from over-emphasis. In an environment where the youth are under constant peer pressure to fit in, drug promotion is an example of an effective health advertisement.

The promotion was run through traditional media channels to raise awareness among the youth. It is consistent with the public understanding that science needs to break down the complex body of knowledge. The media is rightly depicted as having the power to influence. The promotion is fear –based like many anti-drug warnings created the late 1990s. Witte and Allen (2009) observed that fear-based anti-drug campaigns have a positive outcome on intentions, attitudes, and behaviours. The overall effect, however, is insignificant and weak (Witte and Allen, 2009). There are several reasons why fear-based health promotion messages could be ineffective. One of the reasons could be the target audience refuse to watch it or tune out. Also, it could be that the repercussions are exaggerated, hence making the promotion appear far-fetched. The graphics could also be subject to ridicule since they look absurd. The selected promotional poster seems to consider these possible drawbacks and appears to solve them.

Question 5
How do advertising and promotion shape the mediation of health, food, or drugs? In other words, what kind of impacts do advertising/ promotional culture have on public conceptions of these ideas/objects? (You don’t need to discuss all three – health, food, and drugs – but can focus on as many as you wish for your answer).

The drug advertising business in the United States is a big business. The drug business is about convincing people they are sick and then availing pharmaceutical solutions. Corporations keen to make profits tend to mislead the public by providing false information. The promotional culture in Canada it appears bent on deceiving the people that they are sick and in need of pharmacological intervention. Existing laws and regulations prohibit abuse of these powers by companies involved. However, several loopholes which influence how Canadians make sense of both disease and treatment live. For example, the prohibitions on industry-sponsored advertisements are usually poorly-enforced. Additionally, financial support advanced to regulatory institutions requires improvement. The Canadian consumer is still vulnerable to the adverse effects of corporate exploitation despite anti-drug promotional regulations.

There are several reasons to be wary of the drug promotional culture in Canada. First, people will start purchasing drugs they do not need due to the influence of advertisements. Subsequently, insurance rates will tend to inflate. The drug advertisement culture makes people view their bodies as sites requiring drugs all the time. This rhetoric serves as a useful tool of governance and a potential strategy for control. Consumers, therefore, need to be vigilant to prevent falling from misleading advertisements. The state also has a role in protecting; implementing robust regulations to protect its citizens. The potential adverse effects of free drug promotions on the public potentially spell doom.

Drug promotional campaigns aid the capitalist system in Canada manufacture needs where they may not exist. The capitalist system naturally creates more goods and services than the market requires. The promotional culture solves this problem of overproduction through classy, catchy advertisements (Greenberg, n.d.). The effect of promotional advertising eventually becomes a teacher of social and personal values (Greenberg, n.d.). Promotional advertisements, therefore, teach individuals values of cultural norms and desirability. Xenical advertisements, for example, influence the public to attribute obesity to with historical failures of body control (Greenberg, n.d.). The perception is wrong, of course, but the people embrace it subconsciously. By shifting the cultural and economic dimensions, promotional culture creates a false need while unfairly exploiting the real lack.

Direct to consumer drugs for depression manipulate social control techniques. For example, Prozac advertisements use visual metaphors to symbolise the process from pain to recovery. Colour is also an effective communicator regardless of the textual content. Prozac ads utilise this phenomenon by using dark colours to signify depression and bright ones to highlight recovery. The nature and content of these advertisements individualise the psychological problems of their target market. In the long run, drug promotional culture for depressants equates salvation from the problem with acquiring a pill (Greenberg, n.d.). The danger of the patient to grow dependent on the drug for normal functioning is apparent, as is the failure to disclose the side effects fully. Fostering an environment for normalising the illusory properties of a drug exposes the society to voluntary servitude and a happy submission (Greenberg, n.d.). As such, corporations skilfully manipulate the public in their relentless pursuit of profits.

The promotional culture on drugs creates a notion that pleasure is achievable using a quick fix. The pharmaceutical advertisements are agents of capitalism and technology. Drugs offered for sale demand that the individuals conform themselves to the dominant economic and social apparatuses (Greenberg, n.d.). As such, the mechanics of conformity obliterate the ability of citizens to adopt a multi-dimensional approach to life. The advertisement culture inhibits the consumers’ capacity to envision an alternative way of life without certain drugs (Greenberg, n.d.). Promotional drugs culture endorses false needs hence subjecting the society to the repressive social order fostered by pharmacological organisations. The result is an obsession with being “healthy” through the intake of drugs we barely require.